To remain healthy, human beings need an adequate, year-round supply of good quality water. Many debilitating or even fatal illnesses are spread by contamination of the water supply by human fecal matter containing disease-causing viruses, bacteria, and parasites. Unfortunately, nearly 2.5 billion people, over one-third of the world’s population, have inadequate access to sanitation and approximately 800 million people do not have access to enough drinking water. These conditions, combined with poor hygiene, are largely responsible for the fact that 50 percent of the world’s population suffers from debilitating diarrheal diseases (e.g., typhoid, cholera, dysentery) at any given time. Of those affected, over 2 million die each year.
Water and sanitation activities and achieving ESDM in this sector requires a participatory approach to activity/program design and management. Strong technical design of the projects is also critical. This chapter includes an overview of best practices drawn from lessons learned in the field over more than 30 years with both participatory approaches and technical design.
Resources
GUIDELINES FOR WATER SUPPLY AND SANITATION PROGRAMMES
- Guidelines for the Development of Small Scale rural Water Supply & Sanitation Projects In East Africa. Warner. D, Abate. C July 2005.
http://www.encapafrica.org/documents/Wat0509_e.pdf
In order to respond to the growing needs for safe drinking water and appropriate means of household sanitation, Catholic Relief Services is determined to provide the best possible technical, social and economic support to rural communities of East Africa. These guidelines are the result of the combined efforts of many individuals, both within CRS and other organizations, to assist in the planning and implementation of CRS country programs in water and sanitation in the region.
- Water Quality Assurance Plan (WQAP) Template
Water Quality Assurance Plans (WQAPs) are the preferred method for ensuring water quality in projects involving the provision of drinking water. USAID recommends that new Initial Environmental Examinations (IEEs) for drinking water provisioning activities require Implementing Partners (IPs) to develop, implement, and report on a WQAP. The WQAP should specify how the IP will assure safe drinking water for the project and meet applicable partner-country water quality requirements, given project implementation conditions. It is intended to specify requirements for initial testing, long-term monitoring, and, in some cases, exact water standards.
This document provides the instructions, example language and template for Implementing Partners (IPs) to develop high quality WQAPs.
- DFID Guidance Manual On Water Supply and Sanitation Programmes (2007). United Kingdom Department for International Development (DFID). http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/Publications/guidance-manual/guidance-manual.htm
An excellent general resource designed to assist DFID staff and partners in developing effective and sustainable water supply and sanitation programs. Comprising three chapters and appendices, it takes the reader from an overview of the sector, through specific development perspectives, to detailed recommendations for each stage of the project cycle.
- Standard Methods for the Examination Of Water and Wastewater, 22nd Ed. (2012). Washington, D.C.: APHA. http://www.standardmethods.org/
This comprehensive reference covers all aspects of water and wastewater analysis techniques. Standard Methods is a joint publication of the American Public Health Association (APHA), the American Water Works Association (AWWA), and the Water Environment Federation (WEF).
- Assessing Demand for Water Supply and Sanitation Projects. (2005). Sarah Parry-Jones. http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/well-studies/well-studies.htm
An exploration of the issues surrounding a demand-responsive approach to water and sanitation service provision, with a discussion of the relative merits of the most commonly used demand assessment tools.
- On-Site Sanitation In Areas With a High Groundwater Table. (2005). Sarah Parry-Jones http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/fact-sheets/fact-sheets-htm/lcsahgt.htm
In areas that experience a seasonally high groundwater table or that are prone to flooding, constructing affordable on-site sanitation facilities can be very problematic. It is a challenge that affects many countries worldwide. This technical brief provides practical guidance on some sanitation options in such conditions. More details on each option outlined can be found in the references in the further reading section.
- Private Sector Participation In the Water and Sanitation Sector: Public-Private Partnership and the Poor (1999). Mike Webster and Kevin Sansom. http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/well-studies/full-reports-pdf/task0164.pdf or http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/well-studies/well-studies.htm
A review of existing work examining the impact of Public-Private Partnerships (PPP) in the water and sanitation sectors on service delivery to the poor. Important gaps in current knowledge are also identified.
- Environmental guidelines for PVOs and NGOs: potable water and sanitation projects (1992). Alan Wyatt, William Hogrewe and Eugene Brantly. Water Sanitation for Health Project, USAID.
A guideline designed to assist project proponents (e.g., PVOs and NGOs) in identifying and mitigating environmental impacts of water supply and sanitation projects. The guideline outlines a process for conduction an environmental evaluation of proposed projects.
WEBSITES
- WELL - Research Centre Network for Water, Sanitation and Environmental Health. http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/
The Water and Environmental Health at London and Loughborough (WELL) website is a focal point of information about water, sanitation and environmental health and related issues in developing and transitional countries. They publish a wide-variety of guidance documents, including factsheets, studies and technical briefs in response to specific requests from the British Government Department for International Development (DFID) staff. WELL also supports development of technical manuals and guidance notes designed to reduce short-and-long-term problems through better documentation and dissemination of existing knowledge and understanding. WELL offers technical assistance and support to representatives of developing countries, UN agencies and UK non-governmental organizations.
- IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. http://www.irc.nl/
Since its foundation in 1968, the IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre (IRC) has facilitated the sharing, promotion and use of knowledge so that governments, professionals and organisations can better support poor men, women and children in developing countries to obtain water and sanitation services they will use and maintain. The website contains a vast array of references, training courses and documents. Of particular interest is the interWater Guide to Organizations available at http://www.irc.nl/page/126.
- Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council. http://www.wsscc.org/
Established in 1990 at the end of the International Drinking Water Supply and Sanitation Decade. Its purpose is to maintain the momentum of the Decade, by providing a regular way for water and sanitation sector professionals to exchange views and experiences and develop approaches to foster more rapid achievement of the goal of universal coverage
- NETWAS: Network for Water and Sanitation. Hosting the International Training Network for Water and Waste Management (ITN - Africa). http://www.netwas.org/
A network of regional and international training institutions, launched in 1984 by the World Bank's Water and Sanitation Program to support training in low-cost water supply and sanitation. ITN Centers provide training, disseminate information and promote local applied sector research on low-cost water supply and sanitation options. The Network links affiliated institutions serving Asia and Africa in Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso (serving countries in francophone West Africa); Kumasi, Ghana (Ghana); Harare, Zimbabwe (Zimbabwe); Nairobi, Kenya (Ethiopia, Kenya, Tanzania, and Uganda); Dhaka, Bangladesh; Calcutta, India (India); and Manila, Philippines (Philippines). New centers are under development.
- All Vision 21 Thematic Papers: http://www.wsscc.org/vision21/docs/index.html
- WHO catalogue 1991-2000. http://www.who.int/dsa/cat98/zcon.htm. See: http://www.who.int/dsa/cat95/zhow.htm
- Water and Sanitation Program Knowledge Network http://www.wsp.org/
The Water and Sanitation Program (WSP) is an international partnership of the world's leading development agencies concerned with improving sector policies, practices and capacities to serve poor people. Administered by the World Bank, WSP provides targeted support to national and local governments, local communities, and their support organizations.
- United Nations Water. http://www.unwater.org/ or http://www.unwater.org/statistics_KWIP.html
- Community-Led Total Sanitation. http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/page/clts-approach
DISEASE PREVENTION AND CONTROL
- Cholera and Other Epidemic Diarrhoeal Diseases Control (1996). Prepared by the Robens Institute, University of Surrey, UK. Geneva: WHO. http://apps.who.int/iris/handle/10665/66334
- PHAST Step-By-Step Guide: A Participatory Approach for the Control of Diarrhoeal Disease (1998). R. Sawyer, M. Simpson-Hébert and S. Wood. Geneva: WHO. English: http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1998/WHO_EOS_98.3.pdf. French: Available for purchase at http://www.who.int/bookorders/francais/detart2.jsp?sesslan=2&codlan=1&codcol=93&codcch=131
- Sanitation Promotion (1998). Mayling Simpson-Hébert and Sara Wood, eds. Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council (WSSCC) Working Group on Promotion of Sanitation. Geneva: World Health Organization (WHO). http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1998/WHO_EOS_98.5_pp1-140.pdf and http://whqlibdoc.who.int/hq/1998/WHO_EOS_98.5_pp141-277.pdf
A valuable resource consisting of a number of short sections that can be used independently. A "Checklists" section (pp. 141-153) includes checklists for planning better sanitation projects, sanitation in emergency situations, hygiene behavior-change, and suggestions for addressing gender issues. Other sections focus on building political will and partnerships and on conducting promotional programs including subsections on principles and guidelines, empowerment, checklists, and promotion through innovation.
- Promoting Change in Environmental Health Behaviour (1999). Ben Cave and Valerie Curtis. http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/well-studies/well-studies.htm
A literature review focusing on the potential effectiveness of approaches to environmental health promotion in developing countries, and appropriate expectations and targets for change in health behavior.
- Drinking water and disease: what healthcare providers should know (2000). Physicians for Social Responsibility. Washington, D.C. http://www.psr.org/dwprimer.pdf
PROVISION OF DRINKING WATER
- WHO Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality: Training Pack. (2000). World Health Organization, Protection of the Human Environment. Geneva: WHO. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/dwq/dwqtraining/en/index.html
These training materials cover a wide range of topics and include 23 sessions - both presentations and practical sessions. Each presentation in the materials includes a session plan, a background paper and overhead transparencies. Each practical session provides guidance as to how such sessions might be delivered and the materials required.
- On-Line Bore-Well and Hand-Pump Installation Tutorial. Lifewater Canada. http://www.lifewater.ca/ndexdril.htm
- Water Quality Assessments: A Guide to The Use Of Biota, Sediments And Water In Environmental Monitoring, 2nd edition (1996). Deborah Chapman, ed. Published on behalf of UNESCO, WHO and UNEP. London: E & FN Spon. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/resourcesquality/wqa/en/index.html
SANITATION AND REFERENCES
- John Kalbermatten, Richard Middleton and Roland Schertenleib. Household-Centered Environmental Sanitation. (1999). Vision 21. http://www.tempest.eawag.ch/organisation/abteilungen/sandec/publikationen/publications_sesp/downloads_sesp/Paper_Description_
HCES_July99.pdf
An amplification of the HCES Model, developed following the Wageningen Meeting. It includes more detailed descriptions of the "zones" and the decision-making processes in different circumstances. Likely to be the model for environmental sanitation planning and implementation in the coming years.
- Guidelines for Wastewater Reuse In Agriculture And Aquaculture: Recommended Revisions Based On New Research Evidence (1999). Ursula Blumenthal, Anne Peasey, Guillermo Ruiz-Palacios and Duncan Mara. http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/well-studies/well-studies.htm
The implications of some new studies for the setting of international guidelines for using wastewater in agriculture and aquaculture are considered, along with the wastewater treatment and other health protection measures needed to achieve these guidelines.
- A Guide to the Development Of On-Site Sanitation (1992). R. Franceys et al. Geneva: WHO. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/hygiene/envsan/onsitesan.pdf
- Community-Based Technologies for Domestic Wastewater Treatment And Reuse: Options For Urban Agriculture (1999). G.D. Rose. International Development Research Centre (IDRC). http://www.p2pays.org/ref/03/02008.htm
This document provides information on urban wastewater management. It specifically discussed issues involved in wastewater resrouce recovery, wastewater management, project planning and implementation. It also includes a good discussion of wastewater treatment technologies such as on-site treatment, anaerobic treatment systems, water-based treatments, and sludge management.
- Operation and maintenance of rural water supply and sanitation systems: a training package for managers and planners (2000). Prepared by Francois Brikke. WSSCC Operation and Maintenace
Network and IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. Geneva:
http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/wss/O_M/Rural.htm
- Sanitation for all (2000). UNICEF. http://www.unicef.org/sanitation/sanitation.pdf
Good overview of key issues. Offers a short set of recommendations for better programming.
- PROSANEAR. People, poverty and pipes: a program of community participation and low-cost technology bringing water and sanitation to Brazil’s urban poor (1998). Y. Katakura and A. Bakalian. UNDP-World Bank Water and Sanitation Program. www.wsp.org/pdfs/working_prosanear.pdf
- AQUA PLUS guidelist: appropriate technology for water supply and sanitation in the developing countries (2002). UNICEF Supply Division. Can be ordered at http://www.irc.nl/products/publications/descr/aqe.html
- Water for the world (1982). USAID Development Information Center. A series of 160 technical notes covering all aspects of rural water supply and sanitation. Out of print but available online through Lifewater International. http://www.lifewater.org/wfw/wfwindex.htm
- Guidelines for the safe use of wastewater and excreta in agriculture and aquaculture: measures for public health protection (executive summary) (1989). D. Maraand and S. Cairncross. Geneva: WHO.
http://www.who.int/environmental_information/Information_resources/documents/wastreus.pdf
- Multi-stage filtration: an innovative water treatment technology (2000). Gerardo Galvis, Jorge Latorre and Jan Teun Visscher. Technical Paper no. 34. IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre.
- Engineering theme W4: executive summaries. DFID. Covering topics including water supply, water treatment, sanitation, wastewater, drainage, project cycle and others. http://www.lboro.ac.uk.uk/well/themew4/contents.htm
- Environmental sanitation from eco-systems approach (1999). Steven Esrey and Ingvar Andersson. Vision 21.
http://www.wsscc.org/vision21/docs/doc39.html
- Health Aspects Of Dry Sanitation With Waste Reuse (2000). Anne Peasey. http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/well-studies/well-studies.htm
A review that collates current knowledge of health risks associated with dry sanitation technologies and the problems associated with their use and maintenance.
- Handbook on Community-Led Total Sanitation (2008). Kamal Kar and Robert Chambers. http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/resource/handbook-community-led-total-sanitation
- Community Approaches to Total Sanitation (2008). UNICEF Division of Policy and Practice, Programme Division. http://www.unicef.org/innovations/files/CATS_field_note.pdf
GUIDANCE FOR OPERATION AND MAINTENANCE
- Operation and Maintenance of Rural Water Supply and Sanitation Systems: A Training Package for Managers and Planners (2000). Prepared by François Brikké. WSSCC Operation and Maintenance Network and IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre. Geneva: http://www.irc.nl/redir/content/download/2548/26132/file/OME_OM_TrainingPackage.pdf
- See http://www.who.int/docstore/water_sanitation_health/wss/o_m.html for links to the following guides:
Selected case studies on operation and maintenance of water supply and sanitation systems. These case studies describe different operation and maintenance (O&M) experiences in a variety of countries, in both rural and urban settings. They are a useful source of information for improving O&M practice.
Tools for assessing operation and maintenance status of urban and rural water supply (2000). These comprehensive guidelines show how to assess O&M performance in both rural and urban areas.
Operation and maintenance of urban water supply and sanitation systems: a guide for managers. This publication examines factors which may prevent existing urban water supply systems from working efficiently, and provides guidelines and solutions for optimization.
Leakage control: source material for a training package. Materials trainers can adapt for use in local training courses, covering all aspects of leakage control, divided into individual modules for ease of use.
Upgrading water treatment plants (2001). Summarizes many different field experiences with efforts to improve the quality of water and to upgrade the capacity of water treatment plants. It provides a practical approach to improving the performance of water treatment plants.
Management of operation and maintenance in rural drinking-water supply and sanitation: a resource training package. This package contains resource material for training courses aimed at improving the management of O&M in rural areas.
Models of management systems for the operation and maintenance of rural water supply and sanitation systems. This document evaluates the factors which influence the development of O&M management systems for rural facilities. It describes models in eight representative countries and offers guidance to planners and designers in selecting the best approach.
Linking technology choice with operation and maintenance. This document helps users make more appropriate technology choices by providing information on the O&M implications-particularly the costs-of selecting a specific technology.
- Tecnologia manual de vaciado de pozos negros (manual pit latrine emptying technology (MAPET)), Dar es Salaam (Tanzania). Habitat. United Nations Best Practices Database. In Spanish: http:habitat.aq.upm.es/bpn/bp271.html
- Small pit emptying machine: an appropriate solution in Nairobi slum, Madeleen Weglin-Schuringa, IRC International Water and Sanitation Centre, and Manus Coffey, Manus Coffey Associates (MCA) for UNCHS (Habitat). http://www.irc.nl/themes/sanitation/smallpit.html
CASE STUDIES
- Provision of Water and Sanitation Services to Small Towns (2000). Jeremy Colin and Joy Morgan. http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/well-studies/summaries-htm/%23brief323.htm
This report describes and analyzes the findings of rapid investigations in two small towns in Uganda and two in the Southern Indian state of Kerala.
- Sanitation Programmes Revisited (1999). Darren Saywell and Caroline Hunt. http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/well-studies/well-studies.htm
A comparative analysis of two notable African sanitation programs, focusing on a historical analysis (investigating how, when and why the programs developed in the way they did) and an understanding of critical issues common to each program, including demand assessment, sanitation promotion, community participation, responsibility for service provision, finance and cost recovery, and health aspects of promotion.
- Lessons Learned From Village-Level Operation and Maintenance (VLOM) (1999). Jeremy Colin. http://www.lboro.ac.uk/well/resources/well-studies/well-studies.htm
A literature review of sector experience of the Village Level Operation and Maintenance Management (VLOM) approach to rural water supply.
- Learning What Works: A 20-Year Retrospective View on International Water And Sanitation Cooperation (1998). Maggie Black. World Bank. English:. http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/sdissues/water/InternationalWaterDecade1981-1990_review.pdf
A detailed history of water supply and sanitation programs and lessons learned.
Climate Change Resources
Note: USAID's Global Climate Change (GCC) Office can provide support on the climate change aspects of this Guideline. To contact the GCC office, please email: climatechange@usaid.gov
- USAID. 2007. Adapting to Climate Variability and Change: A Guidance Manual for Development Planning. http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADJ990.pdf
- USAID. 2009. Adapting to Coastal Climate Change: A Guidebook for Development Planners. http://pdf.usaid.gov/pdf_docs/PNADO614.pdf
The guidance provides information to assist planners and stakeholders as they cope with a changing climate throughout the project cycle.
- National Communications are submitted by countries to the UNFCCC and include information on country context, broad priority development and climate objectives, overviews of key sectors, historic climate conditions, projected changes in the climate and impacts on key sectors, potential priority adaptation measures, limitations, challenges and needs. http://unfccc.int/national_reports/non-annex_i_natcom/items/2979.php
- The World Bank’s Climate Change Knowledge Portal is intended to provide quick and readily accessible climate and climate-related data to policy makers and development practitioners. The site also includes a mapping visualization tool (webGIS) that displays key climate variables and climate-related data. http://sdwebx.worldbank.org/climateportal/
- National climate change policies and plans. Many countries have policies and plans for addressing climate change adaptation.
- United Nations. Climate Change and the Human Rights to Water and Sanitation. Position Paper.
http://www2.ohchr.org/english/issues/water/iexpert/docs/ClimateChange_HRtWS.pdf
- WHO. 2009. Vision 2030: The Resilience of Water Supply and Sanitation in the Face of Climate Change. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/vision_2030_9789241598422.pdf
- WaterAid. 2012. Handbook on Climate Change and Disaster Resilient Water, Sanitation and Hygiene Practices.
http://www.wateraidamerica.org/includes/documents/cm_docs/2013/h/handbook_on_climate_change_and_disaster_resilient_wash_
practices.pdf
- Commonwealth Secretariat. 2009. Managing the Health Effects of Climate Change: 3. Water and Sanitation.
http://www.thecommonwealth.org/files/206112/FileName/waterandsanitation.pdf
- Environmental Protection Agency. Sources of Greenhouse Gas Emissions. 2013. http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/ghgemissions/sources/commercialresidential.html
DOCUMENTS DISPONIBLES EN FRANÇAIS
- Manuel de l'Assainissement Total. Piloté par la Communauté. Kamal Kar et. Robert Chambers. Plan International 2008. http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/media/Manuel_ATPC.pdf
- Documents et outres resources du Site de IRC, http://www.fr.irc.nl/page/13567
Directives environnementales, sanitaires et sécuritaires pour l'eau et l'assainissement. Société Financière Internationale Avril 2007. http://www1.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/c292fc00488658adb6c6f66a6515bb18/052_Water%2Band%2BSanitation.pdf?MOD=AJPE
RES&CACHEID=c292fc00488658adb6c6f66a6515bb18
Manuel en environnement - Ressources complémentaires — Systèmes d'assainissement. Outils pour l'identification des effets environnementaux de secteurs d'activités spécifiques, des mesures d'atténuation appropriées et lignes directrices ACDI. 2007. http://www.acdi-cida.gc.ca/acdi-cida/acdi-cida.nsf/fra/REN-218123430-NML
Normes relatives à l’eau, l’assainissement et l’hygiène en milieu scolaire dans les environnements pauvres en ressources John Adams, Jamie Bartram, Yves Chartier, Jackie Sims. WH)O. 2010. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/wsh_standards_school/fr/index.html
DOCUMENTOS DISPONIBLES EN ESPAÑOL
- Normas sobre agua, saneamiento e higiene para escuelas en contextos de escasos recursos. John Adams, Jamie Bartram, Yves Chartier, Jackie Sims. WHO. 2010. http://www.who.int/water_sanitation_health/publications/wsh_standards_school/es/index.html
- Manual sobre. Saneamiento. Total Liderado por la Comunidad. Kamal Kar con Robert Chambers. Preparado con el apoyo del Plan 2008. http://www.communityledtotalsanitation.org/sites/communityledtotalsanitation.org/files/media/Manual_sobre_saneamiento_total.pdf
- Saneamiento, aqua e higiene en escuela. Una prioridad para el desarrollo de la niñez Alianza para el mejoramiento de las condiciones de Agua, Saneamiento e Higiene en las Escuelas de América y el Caribe. http://www2.paho.org/hq/dmdocuments/2010/Nota%20Conceptual%20-%20WASH%20en%20escuelas_lowres.pdf
Manual sobre saneamiento e higiene en la escuela UNICEF 2007. http://www.irc.nl/page/6521
- Guías sobre medio ambiente, salud y seguridad para agua y saneamiento Corporación Financiera Internacional. Abril 2007. http://www1.ifc.org/wps/wcm/connect/d594b60048855aba86dcd66a6515bb18/0000199659ESes%2BWater%2Band%2B
Sanitation%2Brev%2Bcc.pdf?MOD=AJPERES&CACHEID=d594b60048855aba86dcd66a6515bb18